Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot.
- Autores
- Altamirano, Adison; Miranda, Alejandro; Aplin, Paul; Carrasco, Jaime; Catalan, Germán; Cayuela, Luis; Fuentes Castillo, Taryn; Hernández, Angela; Martinez - Harms, María J.; Peluso, Franco; Prado, Marco; Reyes - Rivero, Rosa; Van Holt, Tracy; Vergara, Cristian; Zamorano - Elgueta, Carlos; Di Bella, Carlos Marcelo
- Año de publicación
- 2020
- Idioma
- inglés
- Tipo de recurso
- artículo
- Estado
- versión publicada
- Descripción
- Distinguishing between natural forests from exotic tree plantations is essential to get an accurate picture of the world’s state of forests. Most exotic tree plantations support lower levels of biodiversity and have less potential for ecosystem services supply than natural forests, and differencing them is still a challenge using standard tools. We use a novel approach in south-central of Chile to differentiate tree cover dynamics among natural forests and exotic tree plantations. Chile has one of the world’s most competitive forestry industry and the region is a global biodiversity hotspot. Our collaborative visual interpretation method combined a global database of tree cover change, remote sensing from high-resolution satellite images and expert knowledge. By distinguishing exotic tree plantation and natural forest loss, we fit spatially explicit models to estimate tree-cover loss across 40 millions of ha between 2000 and 2016. We were able to distinguish natural forests from exotic tree plantations with an overall accuracy of 99% and predicted forest loss. Total tree cover loss was continuous over time, and the disaggregatio revealed that 1 549 909 ha of tree plantations were lost (mean = 96 869 ha year−1 ), while 206 142 ha corresponded to natural forest loss (mean = 12 884 ha year−1 ). Mostly of tree plantations lost returned to be plantation (51%). Natural forests were converted mainly (75%) to transitional land covers (e.g. shrubland, bare land, grassland), and an important proportion of these may finish as tree plantation. This replacement may undermine objectives of increased carbon storage and biodiversity. Tree planting as a solution has gained increased attention in recen years with ambitious commitments to mitigate the effects of climate change. However, negative outcomes for the environment could result if strategies incentivize the replacement of natural forests into other land covers. Initiatives to reduce carbon emissions should encourage differentiating natural forests from exotic tree plantations and pay more attention on protecting and managing sustainably the former
Instituto de Clima y Agua
Fil: Altamirano, Adison. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales. Butamallin Research Center for Global Change; Chile
Fil. Miranda, Alejandro. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de Chile. Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR2); Chile.
Fil: Aplin, Paul. University Ormskirk. Department of Geography and Geology; Reino Unido
Fil: Carrasco, Jaime. Universidad de Chile. Industrial Engineering Department; Chile. Complex Engineering System Institute—ISCI; Chile
Fil: Catalán, Germán. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales. Doctorado en Ciencias Agroalimentarias y Medioambiente; Chile
Fil: Cayuela Luis. Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. Department of Biology, Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry; España
Fil: Fuentes-Castillo, Taryn. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Facultad de Historia, Geografía y Ciencia Política. Instituto de Geografía; Chile
Fil: Hernández, Angela. Centro de Investigación en Ecosistemas de la Patagonia (CIEP); Chile
Fil: Martínez-Harms, María J. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Center for Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES); Chile
Fil: Peluso, Franco. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Clima y Agua; Argentina
Fil: Prado, Marco. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile
Fil: Reyes - Riveros, Rosa. Universidad de La Frontera, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales, Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab, Temuco, Chile; Universidad de La Frontera, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales, Doctorado en Ciencias Agroalimentarias y Medioambiente, Temuco, Chile
Fil: Van Holt, Tracy. New York University. Leonard N. Stern School of Business. Center for Sustainable Business; Estados Unidos
Fil: Vergara, Cristian. Universidad Católica de Temuco. Facultad de Recursos Naturales. Laboratorio de Planificación Territorial. Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales; Chile
Fil: Zamorano-Elgueta, Carlos. Universidad de Aysen; Chile
Fil: Di Bella, Carlos Marcelo. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Agronomía. Departamento de Métodos Cuantitativos y Sistemas de Información; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina - Fuente
- Environmental Research Letters 15 : 124055. (2020)
- Materia
-
Remote Sensing
Land Use
Land Cover Change
Canopy
Forest Plantations
Teledetección
Utilización de la Tierra
Alteración de la Cubierta Vegetal
Cubierta de Copas
Plantación Forestal
Augmented Visual Interpretation
Interpretación Visual Aumentada - Nivel de accesibilidad
- acceso abierto
- Condiciones de uso
- http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
- Repositorio
.jpg)
- Institución
- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria
- OAI Identificador
- oai:localhost:20.500.12123/15707
Ver los metadatos del registro completo
| id |
INTADig_1c33f64136b7c91e3d4518c4f2bbb0e1 |
|---|---|
| oai_identifier_str |
oai:localhost:20.500.12123/15707 |
| network_acronym_str |
INTADig |
| repository_id_str |
l |
| network_name_str |
INTA Digital (INTA) |
| spelling |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot.Altamirano, AdisonMiranda, AlejandroAplin, PaulCarrasco, JaimeCatalan, GermánCayuela, LuisFuentes Castillo, TarynHernández, AngelaMartinez - Harms, María J.Peluso, FrancoPrado, MarcoReyes - Rivero, RosaVan Holt, TracyVergara, CristianZamorano - Elgueta, CarlosDi Bella, Carlos MarceloRemote SensingLand UseLand Cover ChangeCanopyForest PlantationsTeledetecciónUtilización de la TierraAlteración de la Cubierta VegetalCubierta de CopasPlantación ForestalAugmented Visual InterpretationInterpretación Visual AumentadaDistinguishing between natural forests from exotic tree plantations is essential to get an accurate picture of the world’s state of forests. Most exotic tree plantations support lower levels of biodiversity and have less potential for ecosystem services supply than natural forests, and differencing them is still a challenge using standard tools. We use a novel approach in south-central of Chile to differentiate tree cover dynamics among natural forests and exotic tree plantations. Chile has one of the world’s most competitive forestry industry and the region is a global biodiversity hotspot. Our collaborative visual interpretation method combined a global database of tree cover change, remote sensing from high-resolution satellite images and expert knowledge. By distinguishing exotic tree plantation and natural forest loss, we fit spatially explicit models to estimate tree-cover loss across 40 millions of ha between 2000 and 2016. We were able to distinguish natural forests from exotic tree plantations with an overall accuracy of 99% and predicted forest loss. Total tree cover loss was continuous over time, and the disaggregatio revealed that 1 549 909 ha of tree plantations were lost (mean = 96 869 ha year−1 ), while 206 142 ha corresponded to natural forest loss (mean = 12 884 ha year−1 ). Mostly of tree plantations lost returned to be plantation (51%). Natural forests were converted mainly (75%) to transitional land covers (e.g. shrubland, bare land, grassland), and an important proportion of these may finish as tree plantation. This replacement may undermine objectives of increased carbon storage and biodiversity. Tree planting as a solution has gained increased attention in recen years with ambitious commitments to mitigate the effects of climate change. However, negative outcomes for the environment could result if strategies incentivize the replacement of natural forests into other land covers. Initiatives to reduce carbon emissions should encourage differentiating natural forests from exotic tree plantations and pay more attention on protecting and managing sustainably the formerInstituto de Clima y AguaFil: Altamirano, Adison. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales. Butamallin Research Center for Global Change; ChileFil. Miranda, Alejandro. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de Chile. Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR2); Chile.Fil: Aplin, Paul. University Ormskirk. Department of Geography and Geology; Reino UnidoFil: Carrasco, Jaime. Universidad de Chile. Industrial Engineering Department; Chile. Complex Engineering System Institute—ISCI; ChileFil: Catalán, Germán. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales. Doctorado en Ciencias Agroalimentarias y Medioambiente; ChileFil: Cayuela Luis. Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. Department of Biology, Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry; EspañaFil: Fuentes-Castillo, Taryn. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Facultad de Historia, Geografía y Ciencia Política. Instituto de Geografía; ChileFil: Hernández, Angela. Centro de Investigación en Ecosistemas de la Patagonia (CIEP); ChileFil: Martínez-Harms, María J. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Center for Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES); ChileFil: Peluso, Franco. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Clima y Agua; ArgentinaFil: Prado, Marco. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; ChileFil: Reyes - Riveros, Rosa. Universidad de La Frontera, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales, Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab, Temuco, Chile; Universidad de La Frontera, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales, Doctorado en Ciencias Agroalimentarias y Medioambiente, Temuco, ChileFil: Van Holt, Tracy. New York University. Leonard N. Stern School of Business. Center for Sustainable Business; Estados UnidosFil: Vergara, Cristian. Universidad Católica de Temuco. Facultad de Recursos Naturales. Laboratorio de Planificación Territorial. Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales; ChileFil: Zamorano-Elgueta, Carlos. Universidad de Aysen; ChileFil: Di Bella, Carlos Marcelo. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Agronomía. Departamento de Métodos Cuantitativos y Sistemas de Información; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; ArgentinaIOP Publishing2023-10-27T09:45:30Z2023-10-27T09:45:30Z2020-12-14info:eu-repo/semantics/articleinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersionhttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501info:ar-repo/semantics/articuloapplication/pdfhttp://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12123/15707https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/abca641748-9326https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abca64Environmental Research Letters 15 : 124055. (2020)reponame:INTA Digital (INTA)instname:Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuariaenginfo:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)2025-11-13T08:47:42Zoai:localhost:20.500.12123/15707instacron:INTAInstitucionalhttp://repositorio.inta.gob.ar/Organismo científico-tecnológicoNo correspondehttp://repositorio.inta.gob.ar/oai/requesttripaldi.nicolas@inta.gob.arArgentinaNo correspondeNo correspondeNo correspondeopendoar:l2025-11-13 08:47:42.432INTA Digital (INTA) - Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuariafalse |
| dc.title.none.fl_str_mv |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. |
| title |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. |
| spellingShingle |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. Altamirano, Adison Remote Sensing Land Use Land Cover Change Canopy Forest Plantations Teledetección Utilización de la Tierra Alteración de la Cubierta Vegetal Cubierta de Copas Plantación Forestal Augmented Visual Interpretation Interpretación Visual Aumentada |
| title_short |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. |
| title_full |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. |
| title_fullStr |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. |
| title_sort |
Natural forests loss and tree plantations: Large - scale tree cover loss differentation in a threatened dioviversity hotspot. |
| dc.creator.none.fl_str_mv |
Altamirano, Adison Miranda, Alejandro Aplin, Paul Carrasco, Jaime Catalan, Germán Cayuela, Luis Fuentes Castillo, Taryn Hernández, Angela Martinez - Harms, María J. Peluso, Franco Prado, Marco Reyes - Rivero, Rosa Van Holt, Tracy Vergara, Cristian Zamorano - Elgueta, Carlos Di Bella, Carlos Marcelo |
| author |
Altamirano, Adison |
| author_facet |
Altamirano, Adison Miranda, Alejandro Aplin, Paul Carrasco, Jaime Catalan, Germán Cayuela, Luis Fuentes Castillo, Taryn Hernández, Angela Martinez - Harms, María J. Peluso, Franco Prado, Marco Reyes - Rivero, Rosa Van Holt, Tracy Vergara, Cristian Zamorano - Elgueta, Carlos Di Bella, Carlos Marcelo |
| author_role |
author |
| author2 |
Miranda, Alejandro Aplin, Paul Carrasco, Jaime Catalan, Germán Cayuela, Luis Fuentes Castillo, Taryn Hernández, Angela Martinez - Harms, María J. Peluso, Franco Prado, Marco Reyes - Rivero, Rosa Van Holt, Tracy Vergara, Cristian Zamorano - Elgueta, Carlos Di Bella, Carlos Marcelo |
| author2_role |
author author author author author author author author author author author author author author author |
| dc.subject.none.fl_str_mv |
Remote Sensing Land Use Land Cover Change Canopy Forest Plantations Teledetección Utilización de la Tierra Alteración de la Cubierta Vegetal Cubierta de Copas Plantación Forestal Augmented Visual Interpretation Interpretación Visual Aumentada |
| topic |
Remote Sensing Land Use Land Cover Change Canopy Forest Plantations Teledetección Utilización de la Tierra Alteración de la Cubierta Vegetal Cubierta de Copas Plantación Forestal Augmented Visual Interpretation Interpretación Visual Aumentada |
| dc.description.none.fl_txt_mv |
Distinguishing between natural forests from exotic tree plantations is essential to get an accurate picture of the world’s state of forests. Most exotic tree plantations support lower levels of biodiversity and have less potential for ecosystem services supply than natural forests, and differencing them is still a challenge using standard tools. We use a novel approach in south-central of Chile to differentiate tree cover dynamics among natural forests and exotic tree plantations. Chile has one of the world’s most competitive forestry industry and the region is a global biodiversity hotspot. Our collaborative visual interpretation method combined a global database of tree cover change, remote sensing from high-resolution satellite images and expert knowledge. By distinguishing exotic tree plantation and natural forest loss, we fit spatially explicit models to estimate tree-cover loss across 40 millions of ha between 2000 and 2016. We were able to distinguish natural forests from exotic tree plantations with an overall accuracy of 99% and predicted forest loss. Total tree cover loss was continuous over time, and the disaggregatio revealed that 1 549 909 ha of tree plantations were lost (mean = 96 869 ha year−1 ), while 206 142 ha corresponded to natural forest loss (mean = 12 884 ha year−1 ). Mostly of tree plantations lost returned to be plantation (51%). Natural forests were converted mainly (75%) to transitional land covers (e.g. shrubland, bare land, grassland), and an important proportion of these may finish as tree plantation. This replacement may undermine objectives of increased carbon storage and biodiversity. Tree planting as a solution has gained increased attention in recen years with ambitious commitments to mitigate the effects of climate change. However, negative outcomes for the environment could result if strategies incentivize the replacement of natural forests into other land covers. Initiatives to reduce carbon emissions should encourage differentiating natural forests from exotic tree plantations and pay more attention on protecting and managing sustainably the former Instituto de Clima y Agua Fil: Altamirano, Adison. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales. Butamallin Research Center for Global Change; Chile Fil. Miranda, Alejandro. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de Chile. Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR2); Chile. Fil: Aplin, Paul. University Ormskirk. Department of Geography and Geology; Reino Unido Fil: Carrasco, Jaime. Universidad de Chile. Industrial Engineering Department; Chile. Complex Engineering System Institute—ISCI; Chile Fil: Catalán, Germán. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales. Doctorado en Ciencias Agroalimentarias y Medioambiente; Chile Fil: Cayuela Luis. Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. Department of Biology, Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry; España Fil: Fuentes-Castillo, Taryn. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Facultad de Historia, Geografía y Ciencia Política. Instituto de Geografía; Chile Fil: Hernández, Angela. Centro de Investigación en Ecosistemas de la Patagonia (CIEP); Chile Fil: Martínez-Harms, María J. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Center for Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES); Chile Fil: Peluso, Franco. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Clima y Agua; Argentina Fil: Prado, Marco. Universidad de La Frontera. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales. Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab; Chile Fil: Reyes - Riveros, Rosa. Universidad de La Frontera, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales, Landscape Ecology and Conservation Lab, Temuco, Chile; Universidad de La Frontera, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Forestales, Doctorado en Ciencias Agroalimentarias y Medioambiente, Temuco, Chile Fil: Van Holt, Tracy. New York University. Leonard N. Stern School of Business. Center for Sustainable Business; Estados Unidos Fil: Vergara, Cristian. Universidad Católica de Temuco. Facultad de Recursos Naturales. Laboratorio de Planificación Territorial. Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales; Chile Fil: Zamorano-Elgueta, Carlos. Universidad de Aysen; Chile Fil: Di Bella, Carlos Marcelo. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Agronomía. Departamento de Métodos Cuantitativos y Sistemas de Información; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina |
| description |
Distinguishing between natural forests from exotic tree plantations is essential to get an accurate picture of the world’s state of forests. Most exotic tree plantations support lower levels of biodiversity and have less potential for ecosystem services supply than natural forests, and differencing them is still a challenge using standard tools. We use a novel approach in south-central of Chile to differentiate tree cover dynamics among natural forests and exotic tree plantations. Chile has one of the world’s most competitive forestry industry and the region is a global biodiversity hotspot. Our collaborative visual interpretation method combined a global database of tree cover change, remote sensing from high-resolution satellite images and expert knowledge. By distinguishing exotic tree plantation and natural forest loss, we fit spatially explicit models to estimate tree-cover loss across 40 millions of ha between 2000 and 2016. We were able to distinguish natural forests from exotic tree plantations with an overall accuracy of 99% and predicted forest loss. Total tree cover loss was continuous over time, and the disaggregatio revealed that 1 549 909 ha of tree plantations were lost (mean = 96 869 ha year−1 ), while 206 142 ha corresponded to natural forest loss (mean = 12 884 ha year−1 ). Mostly of tree plantations lost returned to be plantation (51%). Natural forests were converted mainly (75%) to transitional land covers (e.g. shrubland, bare land, grassland), and an important proportion of these may finish as tree plantation. This replacement may undermine objectives of increased carbon storage and biodiversity. Tree planting as a solution has gained increased attention in recen years with ambitious commitments to mitigate the effects of climate change. However, negative outcomes for the environment could result if strategies incentivize the replacement of natural forests into other land covers. Initiatives to reduce carbon emissions should encourage differentiating natural forests from exotic tree plantations and pay more attention on protecting and managing sustainably the former |
| publishDate |
2020 |
| dc.date.none.fl_str_mv |
2020-12-14 2023-10-27T09:45:30Z 2023-10-27T09:45:30Z |
| dc.type.none.fl_str_mv |
info:eu-repo/semantics/article info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501 info:ar-repo/semantics/articulo |
| format |
article |
| status_str |
publishedVersion |
| dc.identifier.none.fl_str_mv |
http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12123/15707 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/abca64 1748-9326 https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abca64 |
| url |
http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12123/15707 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/abca64 https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abca64 |
| identifier_str_mv |
1748-9326 |
| dc.language.none.fl_str_mv |
eng |
| language |
eng |
| dc.rights.none.fl_str_mv |
info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) |
| eu_rights_str_mv |
openAccess |
| rights_invalid_str_mv |
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) |
| dc.format.none.fl_str_mv |
application/pdf |
| dc.publisher.none.fl_str_mv |
IOP Publishing |
| publisher.none.fl_str_mv |
IOP Publishing |
| dc.source.none.fl_str_mv |
Environmental Research Letters 15 : 124055. (2020) reponame:INTA Digital (INTA) instname:Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria |
| reponame_str |
INTA Digital (INTA) |
| collection |
INTA Digital (INTA) |
| instname_str |
Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria |
| repository.name.fl_str_mv |
INTA Digital (INTA) - Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria |
| repository.mail.fl_str_mv |
tripaldi.nicolas@inta.gob.ar |
| _version_ |
1848680526591819776 |
| score |
12.721886 |